India
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This article is about the Republic of India. For other uses, see India (disambiguation).

Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[19] Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism—originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early 18th century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence which was marked by a non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
India is a federal constitutional republic with a parliamentary democracy consisting of 28 states and seven union territories. A pluralistic, multilingual and multiethnic society where more than 400[20] languages are spoken, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The Indian economy is the world's eleventh largest economy by nominal GDP and the fourth largest by purchasing power parity. Since the introduction of market-based economic reforms in 1991, India has become one of the fastest growing major economies in the world;[21] however, the country continues to face several poverty, illiteracy, corruption and public health related challenges. India is classified as a newly industrialised country and is one of the four BRIC nations.[22][23] It is the world's sixth de facto recognised nuclear weapons state and has the third-largest standing armed force in the world, while its military expenditure ranks tenth in the world.[24] India is a regional power in South Asia.[25]
It is a founding member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the World Trade Organization, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the East Asia Summit, the G20 and the G8+5; a member of the Commonwealth of Nations; and an observer state in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.
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Etymology
Main article: Names of India
The name India is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit सिन्धु Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[26] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.[27] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronounced [ˈbʱaːrət̪] (

History
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Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared about 8,500 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[30] dating back to 3400 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BCE. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[31]In the 3rd century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great.[32] From the 3rd century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age".[33][34] Empires in southern India included those of the Chalukyas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, technology, engineering, art, logic, language, literature, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.
Following Islamic invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 12th centuries, much of northern India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. The Mughals forged a strategic alliance with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms.[35] However, some Rajput kings, such as Maharana Pratap, continued to pose significant threat to Mughal dominance of northwestern India.[36] Additionally, regional empires in southern and northeastern India, such as the Ahoms of Assam, successfully resisted Mughal subjugation. The reign of Aurangzeb saw the enforcement of strict Muslim fundamentalism which caused rebellions among the Sikhs and Hindu Rajputs.[37][38] By early 1700s, the Sikh Empire and the Hindu Marathas had emerged as formidable foes of the Mughals.[39] Following the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire entered a period of gradual decline and by mid-18th century, a large portion of the Mughal territory came under the control of the Maratha Empire.[40]
From the 16th century, European imperialist nations, such as Portugal, the Netherlands, Denmark, France, and Great Britain, established trading posts in India and later took advantage of various internal conflicts to establish colonies. By 1856, most of India had come under the control of the British East India Company.[41] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms seriously challenged the Company's control but eventually failed. As a result of the instability, India was brought under the direct rule of the British Crown. Between 1860 and 1900, the Indian subcontinent suffered some of the worst famines in its history causing the death of about 14.5 million people.[42]

Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.
In September 1939, India declared war on Germany and at the height of the World War II, more than 2.5 million Indian soldiers were fighting against the Axis powers.[47] The Indian Army was one of the largest Allied forces contingents which took part in the North and East African, Western Desert and the Italian Campaign and played a crucial role in halting the progress of Imperial Japan in the South-East Asian theatre. [48][49] However, certain Indian nationalists collaborated with the Axis powers to overthrow the British Raj. The Indian National Army (INA), led by Subhash Chandra Bose, forged an alliance with the Axis powers and fought an unsuccessful military campaign against British India.[50]
In 1943, a perceived shortage of food leading to large-scale hoarding and soaring food prices coupled with poor food distribution mechanism and inadequate response of the British officials resulted in a catastrophic famine in the Bengal region which killed about 1.5 to 3 million people.[51][52] After World War II, a number of mutinies broke out in the Air Force and Navy and the INA trials caused considerable public unrest.[53][54] On 15 August 1947, the British Raj was dissolved following which the Muslim-majority areas were partitioned which led to the creation of a separate sovereign dominion known as Pakistan.[55] The partition led to a population transfer of more than 10 million people between India and Pakistan and the death of about one million people.[56]
Soon after the end of the British Raj, the accession of the 552 princely states to the Union of India went smoothly with the exception of Junagadh, Kashmir and Hyderabad.[57] Junagadh acceded to Pakistan which caused considerable internal unrest.[58] As a consequence, India militarily occupied Junagadh and held a plebiscite, following which Junagadh joined India.[59] After negotiations between India and then Nizam of Hyderabad ended in a stalemate, India launched a successful "police action" to annex Hyderabad.[59] Facing deteriorating political situation, unrest among the Muslim-majority populace and a Pakistani military invasion, the then Maharaja of Kashmir decided to seek military assistance from India and signed the Instrument of Accession.[59][60] The subsequent armed conflict between India and Pakistan ended in December 1948 and the Line of Control formed the de facto border between Indian and Pakistani Kashmir.[61]
On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect under which the country was established as a secular and a democratic state.[62] In 1961, India successfully invaded Goa to liberate it from Portuguese rule, following which Goa was incorporated into the Indian union.[63] India's unresolved territorial disputes with the People's Republic of China escalated into the 1962 Sino-Indian War, which resulted in India losing control over northeastern Ladakh region. In 1965, Pakistan's failed attempt to infiltrate and invade Indian Kashmir triggered the Second Kashmir War.[64] A third major war broke out between India and Pakistan in 1971 which resulted in a decisive Indian victory and the creation of Bangladesh.[65] During the early 1970s, Sikkim faced a popular pro-democratic movement and a referendum was held in 1975, following which Sikkim merged with India.[66] In the 1980s, India launched a successful military offensive in Siachen which helped it gain control over most of the region.[67] In 1999, Pakistani soldiers infiltrated into the Kargil region of Indian Kashmir,[68] following which India responded with a successful military campaign to drive out the infiltrators.[69]
Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Kashmir and northeastern region. India became a a nuclear state when it conducted its first nuclear test in 1974,[70] which was followed by another five tests in 1998.[70] From the 1950s to the 1980s, India followed socialist-inspired policies. The economy was shackled by extensive regulation, protectionism and public ownership, leading to pervasive corruption and slow economic growth.[71] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[72] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.[21]
Geography
Main article: Geography of India
See also: Geological history of India
The territory controlled by India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, lies between latitudes 6° and 36° N, and longitudes 68° and 98° E. The country sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[73]India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[73] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[73] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[74] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[75] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.[76]
The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and most geologically stable part of India, and extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[77] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[78] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[79] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[80]

The Himalayas form the mountainous landscape of northern India. Seen here is Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir.
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges (Ganga) and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[81] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[82] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[83] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[84] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[85]
Climate
Main article: Climate of India
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[86] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian Katabatic wind from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[87][88] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[86] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[89]Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of India
See also: List of ecoregions in India

The Red Panda is found in the Himalayan foothills in northeastern India, particularly the state of Sikkim.[90]
India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and northeastern India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[94] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. According to latest report, less than 12% of India's landmass is covered by dense forests.[95]
Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[96] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[94] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[91] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[97] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[98] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[99] was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[100] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[101]
Politics
Main article: Politics of India
India is the most populous democracy in the world.[16][102] It is a parliamentary republic and operates under a multi-party system.[103] There are six recognised national parties, such as Indian National Congress (INC) and Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties.[104] From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. Since late 1980s, politics in India has been dominated mostly by the INC and the BJP;[105] however, the emergence of several influential regional parties has often necessitated the formation of multi-party coalition government.[106]Within Indian political culture, the INC is considered centre-left or "liberal" and the BJP is considered centre-right or "conservative". The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[107] As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term.[108]
The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both the BJP and the INC. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several other parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[109]
In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various Left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP. The UPA again came into power in the 2009 general election; however, the representation of the Left leaning parties within the coalition has significantly reduced.[110] Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962 to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term.[111]
Government
Main articles: Government of India and Constitution of India
![]() | ||
---|---|---|
Flag | Tricolour | |
Emblem | Sarnath Lion Capital | |
Anthem | Jana Gana Mana | |
Song | Vande Mataram | |
Animal | Royal Bengal Tiger | |
Bird | Indian Peacock | |
Aquatic animal | Dolphin | |
Flower | Lotus | |
Tree | Banyan | |
Fruit | Mango | |
Sport | Field hockey | |
Calendar | Saka | |
River | Ganges |
The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950.[115] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[116] India has a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. Its form of government was traditionally described as being 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre and weaker states,[117] but it has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and social changes.[118]
The President of India is the head of state[119] elected indirectly by an electoral college[120] for a five-year term.[121][122] The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[119] Appointed by the President,[123] the Prime Minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[119] The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the Parliament.[124]
The Legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[125] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[126] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[126] 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[126] The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if the President is of the opinion that the community is not adequately represented.[126]
Judiciary
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 21 High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[127] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[128] It is judicially independent,[127] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down Union or State laws which contravene the Constitution.[129] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[130]Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of India
India consists of 28 states and seven Union Territories.[131] All states, and the two union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments patterned on the Westminster model. The other five union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis.[132] Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts.[133] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages.States:
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of India

India and Russia share an extensive economic, defence and technological relationship.[134] Shown here is PM Manmohan Singh with President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit.
India continues to maintain strategic relations with Russia and also enjoys extensive defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played an influential role in the SAARC and the WTO.[138] India has provided as many as 55,000 Indian military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peacekeeping operations across four continents.[139] India is also an active participant in various multilateral forums, particularly the East Asia Summit and the G8+5.[140][141] In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia and Africa. Since early 2000s, India has vigorously pursued its "Look East" policy which has helped it increase its collaboration with the ASEAN nations, Japan and South Korea on a range of issues, particularly economic investment and regional security.[142][143]
Recent overtures by the Indian government have enhanced India's economic, strategic and military cooperation with the United States and the European Union.[144] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement between India and the United States was signed, prior to which India received waivers from the IAEA and the NSG which ended restrictions on nuclear technology commerce, even though India possesses nuclear weapons and is not a signatory of the NPT. As a consequence, India became the world's sixth de facto recognised nuclear weapons state.[145] Following the NSG waiver, India has also signed civilian nuclear energy cooperation agreements with other nations including Russia,[146] France,[147] the United Kingdom,[148] and Canada.[149]
Military
Main article: Indian Armed Forces

Jointly developed by Sukhoi and Hindustan Aeronautics, the Su-30 MKI "Flanker-H" is the Indian Air Force's prime air superiority fighter.[150]
China's repeated threats to intervene in the 1965 war in support of Pakistan convinced India to develop nuclear weapons to counter Chinese nuclear tests.[153] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT which it considers to be flawed and discriminatory.[154] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.[155][156] India also has an advanced ballistic missile defence shield development program and is developing a fifth generation fighter jet in collaboration with Russia.[157][158] Other major indigenous military development projects include Vikrant class aircraft carriers and Arihant class nuclear submarines.[159][160]
Economy
Main article: Economy of India

The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange by market capitalisation.
Before 1991, the Indian government followed protectionist and socialist-inspired policies because of which the Indian economy was largely closed to the outside world and suffered from extensive state intervention and regulation.[165] After an acute balance of payments crisis, the nation liberalised its economy and has since moved towards a free-market economy.[166][167] Since then, the emphasis has been to use foreign trade and investment as integral parts of India's economy.[168] Currently, India's economic system is portrayed as a capitalist model with the influx of private enterprise.[167]
India has the world's second largest labour force, with 467 million people.[169] In terms of output, the agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes.[131] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software.[131] India's external trade has reached a relatively moderate share of 24% of GDP in 2006, up from 6% in 1985.[166] In 2008, India's share of world trade was about 1.68%;[170] in 2009, it was the world's fifteenth largest importer and eighteenth largest exporter.[171] Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures.[131] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals.[131]
Despite India's impressive economic growth over recent decades, the country continues to face various socio-economic challenges. Though the percentage of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.25/day decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005,[181] the country still contains the largest concentration of poor people in the world.[182] Since 1991, inter-state economic inequality in India has consistently grown; the per capita net state domestic product of India's richest states is about 3.2 times that of the poorest states.[183] Perception about corruption in India has also increased significantly[184] and according to one estimate, since independence India has lost US$462 billion in illegal capital flows.[185] Half of the children in India are underweight[186] and about 46% of Indian children under the age of three suffer from malnutrition.[182]
According to a 2011 PwC report, in terms of PPP, India's GDP will overtake that of Japan in 2011 and by 2045, India's GDP will surpass that of the United States.[187] Additionally, over the next four decades, India's average annual economic growth rate is expected to stand at about 8% and therefore, it has the potential to be the world's fastest growing major economy over the period to 2050.[187] The report also highlighted some of the key factors behind India's high economic growth rate — young and rapidly growing working age population; growth of manufacturing sector due to strong engineering skills and rising levels of education; and sustained growth of consumer market due to rapidly growing middle class population.[187] However, the World Bank suggests that for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.[188]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of India
See also: Ethnic groups of South Asia, List of most populous metropolitan areas in India, and Religion in India
With an estimated population of 1.2 billion,[10] India is the world's second most populous country. The last 50 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity due to the "green revolution".[189][190] The percentage of Indian population living in urban areas has consistently grown; from 1991 to 2001, India's urban population increased by 31.2%.[191] In 2001, about 285 million Indians lived in urban areas while more than 70% of India's population resided in rural areas.[192][193] As per the 2001 census, there are twenty seven million-plus cities,[191] with the largest cities being Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata.India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).[62] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate at 91% while Bihar has the lowest at 47%.[194][195] The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.[62] Though India has one of the world's most diverse and modern healthcare systems, the country continues to face several public health-related challenges.[196][197] According to the World Health Organization, 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water and breathing in polluted air.[198] There are about 60 physicians per 100,000 people in India.[199]
The Indian Constitution recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.[200] As per the 2001 census, over 800 million Indians (80.5%) were Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians and Bahá'ís.[201] India has the world's third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim majority country.
Languages
Main article: Languages of India
India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Neither the Constitution of India, nor any Indian law defines any national language.[8] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[202] is the official language of the union.[203] English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;'[204] it is also important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. In addition, every state and union territory has its own official languages, and the constitution also recognises in particular 21 "scheduled languages".Culture
Main article: Culture of India

The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a memorial to his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".[205]
Indian religions form one of the most defining aspects of Indian culture.[211] Major dhármic religions which were founded in India include Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Considered to be a successor to the ancient Vedic religion,[212] Hinduism has been shaped by the various schools of thoughts based on the Upanishads,[213] the Yoga Sutras and the Bhakti movement.[211] Buddhism originated in India in 5th century BCE and prominent early Buddhist schools, such as Theravāda and Mahāyāna, gained dominance during the Maurya Empire.[211] Though Buddhism entered a period of gradual decline in India 5th century CE onwards,[214] it played an influential role in shaping Indian philosophy and thought.[211]
Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation.
Considered to be the earliest and foremost "monument" of Indian literature, the Vedic or Sanskrit literature was developed from 1,400 BCE to 1,200 AD.[215][216] Prominent Indian literary works of the classical era include epics such as Mahābhārata and Ramayana, dramas such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya.[217] Developed between 600 BCE and 300 AD, the Sangam literature consists 2,381 poems and is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.[218][219][220] From 7th century AD to 18th century AD, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr, Tulsīdās and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression and as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[221] In the 19th century, Indian writers took new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. During the 20th century, Indian literature was heavily influenced by the works of universally acclaimed Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.[222]
Society and traditions

Rabindranath Tagore - Asia's first[223] Nobel laureate[224] and composer of India's national anthem, played a major role in reviving several art forms such as the Manipuri.[225]
Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm, although nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[71] An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents and other respected family members, with the consent of the bride and groom.[229] Marriage is thought to be for life,[229] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[230] Child marriage is still a common practice, more so in rural India, with half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.[231][232]
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti, Moharram and Vaisakhi.[233][234] India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories — Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.
Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.
Music, dance, theatre and cinema
Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter.Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand , sambalpuri of Orissa , the ghoomar of Rajasthan and the Lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[235]
Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[236] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[237]
The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[238] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[239] Established traditions also exist in Assamese, Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[240]
Cuisine
Indian cuisine is characterised by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east), wheat (predominantly in the north)[241] and lentils.[242] Spices, such as black pepper which are now consumed world wide, are originally native to the Indian subcontinent. Chili pepper, which was introduced by the Portuguese, is also widely used in Indian cuisine.[243]Sport
Main article: Sport in India
A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders
India is home to several traditional sports which originated in the country and continue to remain fairly popular. These include kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as Kalarippayattu, Yuddha, Silambam and Varma Kalai, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching.
Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.[245] Tennis has also become increasingly popular, owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team and the success of Indian tennis players.[246] India has a strong presence in shooting sports, winning several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships and the Commonwealth Games.[247][248] Other sports in which Indian sports-persons have won numerous awards or medals at international sporting events include badminton,[249] boxing[250] and wrestling.[251][252] Football is a popular sport in northeastern India, West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[253]
India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987 and 1996 Cricket World Cup, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2010 Hockey World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters. The country is scheduled to host the 2011 Cricket World Cup and the first Indian Grand Prix in 2011.
See also
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Main articles: Outline of India and Index of India-related articles
Notes
- ^ The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani-held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.
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- Literature
- History
- Brown, Judith M. (1994). Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy
- Guha, Ramchandra (2007). India after Gandhi — The History of the World's Largest Democracy. 1st edition. Picador. xxvii, 900. ISBN 978-0-330-39610-3.
- Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India
- Metcalf, Barbara; Thomas R. Metcalf (2006). A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories)
- Spear, Percival (1990). A History of India
- Stein, Burton (2001). A History of India
- Thapar, Romila (1990). A History of India
- Wolpert, Stanley (2003). A New History of India
- Geography
- Dikshit, K.R.; Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2007). "India: The Land"
- Government of India (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting. ISBN 81-230-1423-6.
- Heitzman, J.; R.L. Worden (1996). India: A Country Study. Library of Congress (Area Handbook Series). ISBN 0-8444-0833-6.
- Posey, C.A (1994). The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather. Reader's Digest Association. ISBN 0-8957-7625-1.
- Flora and fauna
- Ali, Salim; Ripley, S. Dillon (1995). A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. 183, 106 colour plates by John Henry Dick. ISBN 0195637321
- Blatter, E.; Millard, Walter S. (1997). Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. xvii, 165, 30 colour plates. ISBN 019562162X
- Israel, Samuel; Sinclair (editors), Toby (2001). Indian Wildlife. Discovery Channel and APA Publications.. ISBN 9812345558
- Prater, S. H. (1971). The book of Indian Animals. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. xxiii, 324, 28 colour plates by Paul Barruel.. ISBN 0195621697
- Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999). Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 1, Hunting and Shooting. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. xi, 439. ISBN 0195645928
- Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999). Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 2, Watching and Conserving. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. xi, 303. ISBN 0195645936
- Tritsch, Mark F. (2001). Wildlife of India. London: Harper Collins Publishers. p. 192. ISBN 0007110626
- Culture
- Dissanayake, Wimal K.; Gokulsing, Moti (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change
- Johnson, W. J. (translator and editor) (1998). The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahabharata: The Massacre at Night
- Kālidāsa; Johnson (editor), W. J. (2001). The Recognition of Śakuntalā: A Play in Seven Acts
- Karanth, K. Shivarama (1997). Yakṣagāna. (Forward by H. Y. Sharada Prasad). Abhinav Publications. p. 252. ISBN 8170173574.
- Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè, eds (2000). The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521402166
- Lal, Ananda (1998). Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre
- MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A History of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1417906197
- Majumdar, Boria; Bandyopadhyay, Kausik (2006). A Social History Of Indian Football: Striving To Score. Routledge. ISBN 0415348358
- Massey, Reginald (2006). India's Dances. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 8170174341
- Ramanujan, A. K. (1985). Poems of Love and War: From the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil
- Rajadhyaksha, Ashish; Willemen (editors), Paul (1999). Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema, 2nd revised edition
- Vilanilam, John V. (2005). Mass Communication in India: A Sociological Perspective. Sage Publications. ISBN 0761933727http://ww.it.com
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